DEFINITION: www.thefreedictionary.com This page is very good.
owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/598/oll This page is excellent.
I also recommend you to go to www.grammar.about.com to look for definitions and explanations about clauses.
COMPOUND SENTENCES: www.classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/winbaskervill-grammar-analysis-compound.html
www.writingcentre.uottawa.ca/hypergrammar/sntstrct.html This one is excellent
DATA COLLECTION
2.1 Introduction
As we will see, research questions and topics can be looked into from many different perspectives, by following different approaches and by using different procedures. The approach that we adopt needs to be suited to the kind of research we want to carry out, and for the variables we want to control. On some occasions, an observational process will be enough because the data we want to collect cannot be quantified, but on other occasions we may need to illustrate our findings with figures and statistics. So, the approach we adopt depends on the nature of the research we aim to do. Very often an eclectic position or a combination of paradigms may be necessary. As classroom research is defined primarily by its setting, the classroom provides the focal point for the types of data collected. However, a wide variety of approaches are used to obtain and analyse data, and the choice of approach depends upon many factors: the researcher's philosophy, the issue to be investigated, the constraints inherent in the situation and so on.
2.2 Quantitative versus qualitative approaches
The problem of approach can be addressed in terms of potentially opposing viewpoints on how research should be conducted. The difference between these perspectives hinges primarily on differing attitudes towards intervention and control. The issues of subjectivity and objectivity often arise when devising observation schedules for recording classroom data. In constructing such instruments, researchers distinguish between "low inference" and "high inference" categories of analysis (Long, 1980a). Low inference categories include things that can be counted or coded without the observer having to infer very much (the number of times a certain student raises his or her hand, for example). High inference categories, on the other hand (learner's attention, for example), demand that the observer makes a judgement that goes well beyond what is immediately visible. Generally speaking, in developing a coding procedure, it makes sense to use low inference categories wherever possible, and to try to document all the evidence that leads us to make broader inferences. A universal problem for classroom researchers, then, is one of finding low inference means of investigating non-trivial aspects of what happens in language classes.The terms quantitative and qualitative apply to both the data collection and data analysis phases of an investigation. Any sort of measurement that yields numerical information generates quantitative data. On the other hand, some data are not the product of measurement or counting, and thus do not result in numerical information (prose descriptions, diaries, and so on). These kinds of data are qualitative.
Likewise, once we have collected data we can analyse them by counting or measuring (quantitative analysis), or by directly reflecting upon and trying to interpret them (a qualitative analysis). Various combinations of quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis are possible.
Qualitative data, such as a set of diaries kept by learners, would typically be considered subjective, a record of opinions and perceptions, rather than "facts". For some researchers learners' diaries are of interest not because they hold the "truth" about something, but precisely because they are a record of opinions and perceptions important to the learners -ideas which cannot easily be tapped in other ways.
2.3 Eclectic approaches
Of course very few studies can be confidently characterised as being purely experimental (more structured, more controlled) or purely naturalistic (less structured, less controlled). In fact, in recent years observational procedures from naturalistic enquiry have been used to document the process variables involved in implementing the treatment in product-oriented experimental research.
While there are as yet relatively few examples of this combined approach, a report by Bailey et al. (1990) demonstrates that it is becoming increasingly clear in general educational research (though research on language teaching and learning has lagged behind somewhat in this area) that action research is often a viable alternative, and one which offers immediate rewards to teachers and learners. We will be looking more closely at action research in Unit 5.
Many researchers agree that an eclectic research approach which combines both experimental measures and naturalistic measures, each to be used where most fitting, is a useful one:
Ideally experimental and interpretative research should be convergent rather than parallel or divergent lines of enquiry.
(Van Lier 1988/90:XIV)
(Van Lier 1988/90:XIV)
There is no need to oppose qualitative and quantitative research. Each is capable of "critical thinking" and each has its place in IL (interlanguage) studies. The danger is ... in failing to acknowledge the contribution that can be made by "hybrid" research (i.e. research that employs both qualitative and quantitative procedures).
(Ellis 1984:284)
(Ellis 1984:284)
It should be clear that we see most value in investigations that combine objective and subjective elements, that quantify only what can be usefully quantified, and that utilise qualitative date collection and analysis procedures wherever they are appropriate.
(Allwright and Bailey 1991:67)
(Allwright and Bailey 1991:67)
However, we will now spend a short time looking at the one of the main approaches mentioned above: that of experimental research.
2.4 Experimental approaches
In experimental research, the researcher exerts a high degree of control and purposefully intervenes in the setting, to determine the effect of intervention. It is important to note, however, that intervention is by no means a negative thing. It is simply a technical terms which refers to the "treatment" administered to some subjects (the experimental group) in order to test a hypothesis about a cause-and effect relationship. This treatment is withheld from other subjects in the study (typically called the control group). If the researchers are careful in setting up the study, these two groups can be presumed to be virtually identical in all respects, except that one gets the treatment (teaching method, materials, for example) and the other does not. After the treatment has been implemented, a test of some sort is usually administered to both groups and their results are compared. Then various mathematical procedures are used to determine whether or not there are statistically significant differences in the test scores of the two groups. From the results, the paradigm claims, we can infer that the treatment either did or did not cause a measurable change in behaviour or learning (the hypothesis effect).
In experimental research, there are some preparatory stages that are currently followed. These stages (Seliger and Shohamy 1989) include the following steps:
- Formulating the general question or the problem which will be solved. This usually emerges from the researcher's experience, from research paradigms or from sources outside the second language field.
- Feasibility of the research work we aim to carry out to solve the problem.
- Deciding on the objectives that will be achieved.
- Formulating the research plan and hypothesis to be tested.
In addition to the above steps, research has to be contextualised. According to Seliger and Shohamy this involves (1989:85):
- selecting a research problem;
- broadening the perspective of the research;
- creating a rationale for the study;
- a revision of the existing literature on the topic;
- describing the different sources for locating the literature (e.g. references to existing material, such as indices, computer searches, and bibliographies, as well as actual material such as journal articles and reviews);
- suggesting ways of organising and reporting the literature review;
- helping the researcher narrow down the research question in preparation for conducting the research;
- describing the criteria for determining the relevance of the material to the research topic.
Another key stage of research begins after the research question or hypothesis has been formulated. Planning the research takes place after the researcher has identified the focus or objective of the research.
In synthetic or analytic-deductive research, planning requires the careful development of a plan in which those factors to be controlled or manipulated are identified: the independent, dependent, subject, and extraneous variables. What exactly are these variables?
The dependent variable is the means by which any changes are measured. The independent variable is the factor the researcher manipulates in order to see what effect the changes introduced will have. For example, if we want to study the relationship between students' participation and their degree of extroversion and their final results, we may start the research plan by thinking that classroom participation and extroversion encourage good results in SLL (hypothesis). The degree of participation and extroversion are independent variables and the student's achievement is the dependent variable.
Research which focuses on variables, makes predictions and tests hypothesis is primarily of the deductive type. Heuristic (exploratory) research, on the other hand, approaches the research context from a different perspective, avoiding preconceptions, with the aim of generating hypothesis but not of testing them, using qualitative methods. It does not attempt to control or manipulate variables (see Seliger and Shohamy 1989).
The following checklist, which provides guidelines for analysing research which has already been carried out, pulls together many of the considerations of this and previous sections in this unit; it can be usefully referred to for research analysis by the reader (Seliger and Shohamy 1989: 80-81):
A. About the research topic
1. What is the main research area?
2. What is the research problem?
3. What are the major research questions or hypotheses?
B. About the research context
1. What other research studies were conducted in the same area?
2. What were their main findings?
3. What is the rationale of the research?
4. Why was it important to conduct the research?
C. About the research method
1. What are the main variables of the study?
2. Which research design was used (experimental, correlational, descriptive, multivariate, ethnographic)?
3. Description of the population, sample, and selection procedures.
4. The data collection procedures - information about their development reliability, validity, pilot study.
5. Description of the data collected.
D. About the data analysis
1. What are the specific data analysis procedures used?
2. Were they quantitative or qualitative, or both?
E. About the findings
1. What were the main findings?
2. What does the researcher conclude from them?
3. How do the findings relate to the research context and to the underlying theories?
4. What are the implications of the findings?
5. What recommendations does the researcher make based on the findings?
6. What recommendations are drawn from the results?
F. Criticism of the research
Consideration of A-E above and specifically:
1. The statement of the problem.
2. The identification of the hypotheses.
3. The description and definition of the variables.
4. The appropriacy of the design of the study.
5. The appropriacy of the instruments.
6. The appropriacy of the data analysis procedures.
7. The consistency of the results with the analysis.
8. Whether the conclusion, implications, and recommendations are warranted by the results.
2.5 Questioning the scientific research paradigm
As we have seen from this unit so far, the experimental approach to research can be rejected in favour of a more subjective, naturalistic approach, or in favour of an eclectic approach to research. Let us take a look at how this state of affairs has come about.
The success of modern science has had the effect of imbuing anything that is 'scientific' with the flavour of absolute truth. Thus research which is based on rational, 'scientific' experiment is seen as unquestionable, objective, right. Why should this be so? According to Winograd and Flores:
The rationalist orientation... is also regarded, perhaps because of the prestige and success that modern science enjoys, as the very paradigm of what it means to think and be intelligent... It is scarcely surprising, then, that the rationalistic orientation pervades not only artificial intelligence and the rest of computer science, but also much of linguistics, management theory, and cognitive science... rationalistic styles of discourse and thinking have determined the questions that have been asked and the theories, methodologies, and assumptions that have been adopted.
(1986:16)
(1986:16)
However, 'scientific' research has so far failed to answer some of the most pressing questions in language teaching. The issue of discipline in the classroom is a case in point. The scientific model of research would try to use scientific knowledge to solve the problem of maintaining discipline: thus the theorists Stones and Morris, writing in 1972, claimed that:
(this) important area of classroom and group management has received detailed empirical study, and a body of theoretical and practical information has been amassed which begins to put the problems of discipline on a scientific footing...
(1972:14).
(1972:14).
The implication here is that scientific study would soon provide a formula for dealing with classroom discipline problems. As all practising teachers know, this has not been the case. Thus scientific research seems to promise solutions to very complex professional dilemmas, but rarely manages to deliver the goods.
Another weakness that is apparent in a scientific research paradigm is that of its lack of grounding in specific classroom practice. There has traditionally been a separation between theorists who do research on the one hand, and practitioners - the teachers in the classroom - on the other. Researchers tend to be working in university departments where they have no contact with the daily realities of the language classroom, particularly as represented in primary and secondary schooling. Researchers and practitioners often have very different training, and there is frequently a sense of status attached to the job of researcher which is not to be found in the job of classroom teacher. In Schon's words:
It was to be the business of university based scientists and scholars to create the fundamental theory which professionals and technicians would apply to practice... But this division of labour reflected a hierarchy of kinds of knowledge which was also a ladder of status.
(1983:36)
(1983:36)
Thus there has been a tendency in research circles to downgrade the value of the classroom teacher's expertise which is derived from experience, rather than from research.
At the same time, research findings are in a sense imposed on teachers. Teachers are called upon to implement new ideas and theories in language teaching in the form of teaching materials, rather than asked to consider the ideas themselves and to evaluate them critically in the light of their own experience and teaching context.
Ellis (1990) points to two reasons for the growing scepticism with the conventional rational research paradigm: firstly, the relationship between teaching and learning is extremely complex. It is not linear (i.e. teaching does not automatically lead to learning), thus experimental research can only provide us with an understanding of fragments of the language learning process, not the whole process. Secondly, according to Ellis, the findings from formal experiments conducted under laboratory conditions are not necessarily applicable to the language classroom:
Innovation in the classroom can never be just a question of implementing a recommendation derived from research. It is always a process of negotiation, involving the teacher's overall educational ideology, the learner's expectations and preferences and local constraints that determine what is feasible. There is no single pedagogical solution which is applicable to all classrooms.
(Ellis 1990:68)
(Ellis 1990:68)
Hence the growing concern among researchers with an alternative paradigm which is closely linked with classroom practice. It is with this classroom based research approach that the next four units of this subject will be concerned.
2.6 Collaborative versus individual research
Apart from distinguishing between experimental, 'scientific' research and more naturalistic approaches, we can also distinguish between individual and collaborative approaches to research.
Individual research, as the name suggests, involves only the researcher him/herself, whether a professional non-practising researcher, or a practising classroom teacher. An example of an individual approach to research in the classroom might be that of using a diary in which to record one's insights into the teaching process. The advantages of such approaches, as Wallace points out, are that:
that they tend to be more flexible, less professionally risky and more easily implemented than others.
(1998:39)
(1998:39)
Collaborative approaches, on the other hand, will involve others. Within the experimental paradigm, it will involve a collaboration between the researcher and the teacher whose classroom is observed, while within the naturalistic paradigm, it will involve the teacher collaborating with peers, probably in the same institution, by for example, sitting in and observing another colleague's lesson(s), or tape recording a discussion about teaching. The advantages of a collaborative approach are several:
With the right kind of co-operation, collaboration can do much to sustain motivation, save time by the allocation of different tasks as appropriate, and generate richer input from the combined talents and insights of those involved.(ibid: 41)
2.7 Conclusion
In this unit we have provided a basic overview of the main research paradigms, and have focused specifically on the main differences between a naturalistic approach to research and an experimental one. We have suggested that there is a growing move in the ELT profession towards the former paradigm, as evidenced by the increasing popularity of types of research such as action research (which we will explore in detail in Unit 5). We also looked in some detail at the shortcomings of the scientific paradigm as perceived today.In Appendix 2.1. you will find an overview of the main types of research as perceived by van Lier (1988:57). He presents the main types of research on two intersecting continuum, which show how research can be more or less controlled (the horizontal axis), and more or less structured (the vertical axis). We will be exploring most of the research implements which appear in his quadrants during the rest of this subject.
ACTION RESEARCH
5.1 Introduction
As with teacher reflection, enormous interest has been generated in recent years in the concept of action research -a teacher initiated form of classroom based research aimed at improving practice. Martin Parrott provides the following definition:
Action research is not so much something that we do in addition to our teaching as something that we integrate into it. In many ways it is a state of mind - it is a scepticism about assumptions and a willingness to put everything to the test. It is something which should take very little time and which does not necessarily need to be made public. It is a way of ensuring that we continue to learn even as we teach. It helps stave off staleness and routine.
(1996:3)
(1996:3)
5.2 Characteristics of action research
Action research is thus research on the smallest scale: that of the individual teacher in his/her classroom carrying out investigations into teaching and learning in very specific contexts with very specific groups of learners. Action research is what the reflective practitioner actually does in the classroom. It is typically direct intervention with only limited possibilities for control. Although it can take many forms, action research in classrooms basically involves taking an action and systematically observing what follows.
The fundamental characteristics of action-research according to Elliott, one of its pioneers, are the following (1990):
- It analyses the human actions and social situations that students and teachers experience.
- It uses an exploratory approach.
- It aims to explain what happens in the classroom in relation to specific teaching contents.
- It interprets different classroom events from the point of view of those who take part; that is, it involves teachers and students: their beliefs, values, intentions, decisions, ...
- It uses direct simple language, in contrast to the technical specialised language used by conventional research, to explain the classroom situations that are analysed.
Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) argue that action research has three defining characteristics: firstly that it is carried out by classroom teachers rather by than outside researchers; secondly, it is collaborative; thirdly, it is aimed at changing things:
A distinctive feature of action research is that those affected by planned changes have the primary responsibility for deciding on courses of critically informed action which seem likely to lead to improvement, and for evaluating the results of strategies tried out in practice. Action research is a group activity.
(1988:6)
(1988:6)
Thus for Kemmis and McTaggart the essential impetus for carrying out action research is to change the system. Cohen and Manion (1985) add that action research is primarily situational, as it is concerned with the solution of problems in a specific context.
However, it is now widely accepted that action research does not necessarily have to be collaborative, nor does it have to result in change. A single teacher, working on identifying aspects of his/her teaching practice in the classroom, can also be considered to be undertaking a perfectly valid piece of action research.
Action research is thus the putting into action of the reflective model of research which we discussed in Unit 4.
5.3 Stages in action research
There are four classic developmental phases of action research:
Phase 1: Develop a plan of action to:
- improve what is already happening, or
- identify and examine a "puzzle" or problem area in your teaching.
Phase 2: Act to implement the plan.
Phase 3: Observe the effects of action in the context in which it occurs.
Phase 4: Reflect on these effects.
An extremely simple action research project is outlined in Appendix 5.1 by Martin Parrott, whom we quoted at the beginning of this unit. His piece of action research could be seen as one of the simplest forms of classroom based research which it is possible to carry out.
Other authors establish more elaborate models for carrying out action research, such as the eight-stage one offered by Cohen and Manion (1985) below:
Stage 1. The identification, evaluation and formulation of the problem.
Stage 2. Preliminary discussion and negotiations amongst interested parties - teachers, advisers, researchers, sponsors - culminating in a draft proposal.
Stage 3. Review of research literature and comparable studies.
Stage 4. Restatement of the problem, or formulation of a hypothesis; explicit discussion of the assumptions underlying the project.
Stage 5. Selection of research procedures, allocation of resources, choice of materials and methods, etc.
Stage 6. Choice of evaluation procedures -bearing in mind that evaluation will be continuous.
Stage 7. The implementation of the project itself, including data collection and analysis, monitoring and feedback.
Stage 8. The interpretation of the data; inferences to be drawn; overall project evaluation.
In Appendix 5.2, Nunan summarises the main stages involved in an action research project. His piece of research is more complex than that outlined by Parrott in Appendix 5.1, but the same principles can be seen to be operating in both.
According to Nunan, the key points to note about action research are that, firstly, the research is initiated by the teacher him/herself and is derived from a real problem in the classroom which needs to be confronted. Secondly, real objective data is collected. Thirdly, the results of the research project are disseminated. Finally, the project takes the form of an ongoing cycle in which the teacher reflects on, returns to, and extends the initial inquiry (1992:18-19).
5.4 Why do action research?
Action research can be used by the classroom teacher for a variety of purposes: it can be used as a way of learning about our learners, and about our teaching and its effectiveness, and as a way of monitoring and evaluating innovation. We will look at each of these areas separately.5.4.1 A way of learning about our learners
By asking about and taking learners' attitudes and preferences into account, we can reflect on and evaluate our teaching. Ways of doing this include: a simple show of hands (The teacher simply poses a series of questions - e.g. "Who wants to be corrected more? Who wants only the teacher to correct them? Who likes mistakes to be corrected by other students?" etc.) - and students show preferences by putting up their hands; questionnaires, in the mother tongue if necessary; teacher/learner diaries or journals can be used for feedback on specific issues; brief teacher/student interviews; and so on.5.4.2 Reflecting and analysing our teaching
There is a great deal we can learn about the way we teach through simple observation of different kinds. For example, we can record or video our lessons and listen to or watch the recording later; peer observation; and so on. Here a test-teach-test approach might be appropriate. For example, the teacher might decide to 'test' the learners' ability to recall vocabulary after teaching it in a variety of ways, with various classes. The important point here is that evidence is unlikely to be conclusive: an experiment of this type could well lead to the conclusion that no one method is better than any other, and that certain students may learn better than others depending on the approach taken. In this case, the teacher may conclude that a variety of approaches is necessary to cater to a variety of learner styles.In a more general sense, action research often has a specific and immediate outcome which can be directly related to practice in the teacher's own context. As it does not make any claims for universal relevance, the research methods employed in action research can be more free-ranging and less rigorous than those employed in conventional research. By allowing for discussion and the sharing of ideas and experience among colleagues, it can open up dialogue on issues that worry teachers, and it can help to kindle and maintain enthusiasm about our classroom practice.
5.4.3 A way of monitoring and evaluating innovation
A simple but systematic evaluation of innovation can help teachers to incorporate principled change into their teaching. What is needed is to start evaluating before the innovation is introduced, and to make the evaluation indirect.
5.5 Criticisms of action research
Posing as it does a rather more flexible, reflective model of research, action research has predictably come in for a certain amount of criticism. This is inevitable, as it reflects an entirely different view of the status of knowledge to the more traditional scientific research paradigm, which we discussed earlier.
The issues of reliability and validity are key in talking about and evaluating research. Reliability refers to the consistency of results obtained from research - how consistent is the collection of data within a piece of research? Reliability also refers to replicability - can the same piece of research be carried out with another group of learners and provide similar results? Validity seeks to establish to what extent the research really investigates what the researcher wants it to - are the research tools used consistent with what the researcher is trying to research? These terms will be discussed in more detail in Unit 7.
Criticisms of action research have centred around its lack of vigorous attention to both reliability and validity, particularly external validity or replicability (the extent to which independent researchers can reproduce a study and obtain results similar to those obtained in the original study).
However, it has been pointed out that the very nature of action research precludes such concern over issues such as external validity because:
in many cases practitioners are less concerned with generating generalisable knowledge than with solving pressing problems associated with their own particular workplace. While such (action research) activities therefore fulfil a professional development function, I still believe that if they address questions of interest to other practitioners, if they generate data, and if they contain analysis and interpretation, then they qualify as research.
(Nunan 1992:18-19)
(Nunan 1992:18-19)
Another criticism of action research lies in the fact that it is unable to provide 'facts' or universal truths about language teaching, as its scope is limited. However, as this criticism lies in a different perception of the status of knowledge to that proposed by action research, as discussed earlier, it is enough to assert that:
the aim of action research is not to arrive at universal truths but only to learn more about ourselves (at the moment), our teaching (at the moment), our learners (at the moment) and their learning (at the moment).
(Parrott 1996:6)
(Parrott 1996:6)
5.6 Conclusion
In this unit we have seen that action research conforms to a naturalistic paradigm of enquiry, and that it is considered to be an important tool for practising teachers to help them become involved in thinking about their own teaching, thus ensuring continued professional development and enhancing competence.Reading 5.1 contains a general overview of action research from Michael Wallace's recent book Action Research for Language Teachers (1998). The Reading contains useful tasks and guidelines for teachers wishing to implement their own action research programmes.
5.7 Suggestions for further reading
Nunan, D. (1989): Understanding Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wallace, M. (1991): Training Foreign Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wallace, M. (1998): Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6. Instruments for Data Collection
6.1 Introduction
In this unit we will be mainly concerned with looking at the different instruments which the researcher has at his/her disposal in order to collect data. In this subject so far we have already come across several data collection instruments: specifically, in Unit 3 we talked about both interaction and discourse analysis and examined several models (such as FIAC, FLINT or COLT) which allow for very focused data collection during a lesson.Our aim in this unit is to first provide an overview of two different approaches to research. The first approach consists of formulating a research hypothesis, and then collecting data in order to validate or disprove the hypothesis. The second approach is exactly the opposite: the researcher first collects data, then examines this data for insights, and from this formulates a hypothesis. Some of the pros and cons of each approach will be pointed out. We will then turn to the concern reflected in the title of this unit - that of data collection -, and we will look particularly at the use of interviews, questionnaires, case studies and diaries for doing this.
6.2 Overview
Let us turn to the first of the concerns voiced in the Introduction: that of two opposite methods of approaching a research question.With the first approach, that of first posing a hypothesis and then collecting data, one possible way in is to read reports of earlier classroom research, and to replicate those studies that seem most suited to our initial research hypothesis. In this type of approach, it is perfectly acceptable to use research plans, questionnaires or observation instruments from published documents to conduct our own research, provided credit is given to the original authors. From the point of view of general research, the replication of existing studies is an important way to go a step further as it is part of the refinement process in validating hypotheses.
However, if we do decide to carry out a replication study, it is important to bear in mind that some studies are not as well-designed as they might be. Accordingly, it is usually more appropriate to talk of follow-up studies rather than of exact replications. This way of approaching and analysing language data can be advisable if we are not yet working with a group of learners.
Let us remind ourselves of the second approach to research hypotheses, which we outlined in the Introduction to this unit: that of first observing classrooms, and then scanning the data for interesting features, and using these as the basis for formulating a hypothesis. Watching language learners in a classroom context can certainly become a good source of ideas for investigations.
Thus we have two opposing points of view as to how to determine the topic of an investigation, between which there is a dynamic tension (Allwright and Bailey 1991). The first position, which is associated with experimental science, holds that a researcher should decide in advance what to investigate, on the basis of predictions generated by theory. In the second view, that more commonly associated with, for example, ethnography, the research questions and hypotheses arise from the data that are collected. Some theorists would argue that any hypothesis or research question ought to come directly from a theory which makes predictions that can be empirically tested by some sort of classroom investigation.
However, as has been suggested, there are three problems with this way of approaching research. Firstly, the theories of language learning do not always lend themselves to making directly testable predictions. In addition, some researchers (e.g. van Lier 1988) consider that classroom lessons are such complex affairs that it is virtually impossible ever to control the number of different variables involved. This will bias the results of any attempt to test a particular theory-driven prediction.
Secondly, another problem with putting theory first is that it misses the point that theories themselves have to come from somewhere. Where do theories come from if not from learning and teaching? -and learning and teaching is exactly what happens in the classroom.
Thirdly, there is the understandable temptation to look at the most visible things only, the things that are easiest to observe, to record, and to count, when we go into a classroom with a preconceived plan of what to look for.
How does the issue of the two positions discussed above affect us as researchers? Firstly, whether we begin from the data first or the theory first position, it is important to have a specific issue in mind, a particular problem to think about, because there is a high risk of wasting a lot of our own and everyone else's time if we begin a research project with no clear idea of what we are going to do. Secondly, given these opposing viewpoints on the research sequence (data-first versus theory-first), it would probably be best to start off with at least a general issue we want to investigate, and to use our thoughts on the issue to help us to decide what sorts of data we will need.
Two problems arise in this area of deciding what to investigate. First, the overall picture we have of classroom language learning from research so far is already distorted by the bias towards the visible. Second, the bias towards investigating 'easily' observable classroom features is a luxury that action researchers at least cannot usually afford, as an action researcher will often be trying to solve a particular problem or puzzle in his/her own teaching. This particular problem may be salient (such as discipline problems), but its underlying motives and machinery may not be.
6.3 Interviews
One popular method of data collection is through using interviews with students. The objective of interviews is to obtain information by actually talking to the subjects under study. Sometimes, students might be questioned about classroom events in an individual face-to-face situation, and other times as a whole group. Perhaps the two main disadvantages with interviews are that individual interviews are:
a) time consuming and
b) they often introduce subjective, biased information, given that interviewees often say what they think that will please the interviewer.
What is more, certain covert variables (e.g. attitudes, prejudices, interests, needs analysis, learning strategies, motivation, etc.) cannot be fully studied unless we interview the subjects involved in the research work and collect information about their beliefs, feelings and opinions.
According to the degree of explicitness and structure, interviews can be "open" and "semi-open" or "semi-structured".
- Open interviews provide the interviewee with very open questions which allow a great deal of freedom of expression in answering. Very often, open interviews are carried out through informal talks about the topics under study.
- Semi-open interviews provide certain core questions which are decided upon in advance, but the subjects interviewed are allowed a certain degree of freedom in answering these questions.
- Semi-structured interviews consist of specific defined questions which are determined beforehand, but also allow some elaboration in the questions and answers.
- Structured interviews include very specific closed questions that require very specific answers.
In general, the more structured interviews need some kind of interview checklist or questionnaire which presents the questions to be asked and the topics to be discussed with some space for the interviewer to write down the answers.
Below is a questionnaire designed for interviewing teachers. It works as follows: the researcher asks another teacher how relevant, useful and efficient he/she finds the activities or tasks related to the subcompetences in the questionnaire for second language learning. In other words, teachers interview each other to find out what kind of exercises they find give better results and why.
Activities, exercises, tasks related to ...
|
Opinion
|
1. Grammatical aspects
| |
2. Vocabulary
| |
3. Explicit teaching / learning of Phonetics, pronunciation
| |
6. Cultural aspects
| |
7. Communicative functions, the functional value of utterances
| |
8. The use of different learning strategies
| |
9. Discourse and texts analysis
| |
10. Cross-curricular aspects, connection with other curricular areas
| |
11. Receptive skills: listening and reading
| |
12. Productive skills: speaking and writing
| |
13. Oral exercises / tasks
| |
14. Written exercises / tasks
|
6.4 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are printed and used for data collection. They include questions or statements that are responded to anonymously. See Appendix 6.1 for an example of the different types of items which might appear on such a questionnaire. Questionnaires are similar to interviews in the type of data that are provided but in questionnaires the questions/statements are in a written form whereas in interviews they are oral.
The use of questionnaires has some clear advantages:
- They can be administered to large groups of subjects.
- The data provided tend to be quite uniform and standard.
- If they are applied to groups of subjects at the same time, the data collected can be very accurate.
But there are also some disadvantages:
- If the questionnaires are taken home to be answered, the response rate is usually very low and this may affect validity and reliability.
- Depending on the nature of the questions, the data provided can be very subjective. Thus it may need to be contrasted and checked in other situations.
- The sample of students which we use for our questionnaire may be too limited, or even unrepresentative of language learners as a whole. The important point here is for the teacher-researcher to beware of generalising from the data.
- Asking students to fill in long questionnaires may be seen s intrusive by the students in several ways. Firstly, it may eat into their time. Secondly, they may be seen as threatening, especially if students are not collaborating in the research process directly.
Questionnaires, like interviews, can also be open, semi-open, semi-structured and structured. Quite frequently, structured questionnaires use the Likert scale to grade statements from 1 to 5 (e.g.: 1=never, 2=seldom, 3=sometimes, 4=often, 5=always). The semantic differential is another technique which grades items on a bipolar scale (e.g. bad/good; high/low; ...).
Below is a questionnaire (Madrid 1999) designed to find out about some of the factors that exert an influence on a student's motivation.
Sources of Motivation
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What factors have a stronger influence on the motivation you experience in the English class, that is, on the interest, attitude, effort and persistence that you show in class? Use the following rating scale:
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5=very much 4=considerably 3=it's indifferent 2=little 0=nothing
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(.....) 1. Classroom activities: The activities and tasks that you do in the English class with your teacher, the textbook, the recording, by yourself, etc.
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(.....) 2. Your teacher's personal qualities, the way (s)he behaves and treats you.
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(.....) 3. Some environmental factors, such us: your parents, pop music, movies, interaction with natives speakers, etc.
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(.....) 4. The characteristics of the English course and its peculiarities compared to other subjects which are not so interesting!
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(.....) 5. The need I have to live in English speaking countries and integrate in their community as a citizen.
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(.....) 6. The importance of English in the world as an international language of communication, to find a job or communicate with other people when I travel.
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The above questionnaire by Madrid uses the Likert scale in order to grade the items. In Appendix 6.1 you will find an examples of various question types which can be used in questionnaires.
.5 Case studies
This type of research focuses on one or a few individuals. In most cases, these studies are longitudinal, that is, they follow the individual's development over a longish period of time. Many case studies have centred, for example, on the development of one subject's (or a few subjects') interlanguage for a few years in order to describe the process. Let us look at a well-known case study carried out by Schmidt (1983), and described as follows in Ellis (1997:6-7):
Wes was a thirty-three year-old artist, a native speaker of Japanese. He had little formal instruction in English, having left school at fifteen. While he remained in Japan his contact with native speakers were few and far between. It was only when he began to visit Hawaii, in connection with his work, that he had regular opportunities to use English...
Richard Schmidt, a researcher at the University of Hawaii, studied Wes's language development over a three-year period from the time he first started visiting Hawaii until he eventually took up residence there. Schmidt asked Wes to make recordings in English when he went on trips back to Tokyo. He then made written transcriptions of these monologues, which lasted between one and three hours. In addition, Schmidt made recordings and transcriptions of informal conversations between Wes and friends in Honolulu.
Among other things, Schmidt was interested in how Wes's knowledge of English grammar developed over the three years. To this end he focused on a small number of grammatical features, such as the use of the auxiliary be, plural -s (for example, spoons), third person -s (for example, comes), and regular past tense (for example, jumped). He looked to see how accurately Wes used these features in his speech at a time near the beginning of his study and at a time near the end.
Here we have the description of a case study which was specifically aimed at testing out certain interlanguage hypotheses. Case study research is very useful for drawing up hypotheses that can be tested later on with more representative samples.
Methodologically speaking, the case study is what Nunan (1992:74) calls a 'hybrid', because a whole range of data collection techniques can be used during the course of the case study. Nunan offers the following typology of the different types of case studies which researchers can carry out:
Type
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Description
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Neo-ethnographic
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The in-depth investigation of a single case by a participant observer.
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Evaluative
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An investigation carried out in order to evaluate policy or practice.
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Multi-site
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A study carried out by several researchers on more than one site.
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Action
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An investigation carried out by a classroom practitioner in his/her professional career.
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Table 6.1:
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A typology of case studies (Nunan 1992:78, based on Stenhouse 1983).
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The advantages to case studies are many. Adelman et al. (1976, in Nunan ibid) suggest that there are six main advantages:
- A case study is based on reality and therefore appeals to practitioners who can identify with the concerns and issues explored.
- Case studies are generalisable, it is claimed.
- A multiplicity of viewpoints can be represented, and differing interpretations of data can be made.
- Case studies can become a data bank of materials for future researchers who may wish to examine other areas, or reinterpret the data.
- The insights gained through case studies can be immediately put into practice in some cases e.g. in areas such as staff development or educational policy-making.
- Case studies are more accessible to non-specialist audiences than conventional research. "Case studies may therefore contribute to the democratisation of decision-making (and knowledge itself)" (Adelman et al. 1976: 149, quoted in Nunan ibid.).
6.6 Diaries
Even though diaries can be, and probably will be, anecdotal and subjective, they can provide very important clues about what learners feel and about how they process information. There are many mental operations and strategies that play a crucial role in language learning and that cannot be observed and studied unless student reports on them. The diary technique is thus very useful for exploring the learning strategies that students may use in different situations. This is especially true of situations where students receive metacognitive instruction and we as teachers want to know what kind of effect this might have on student learning.6.7 Conclusion
This unit has been concerned with a number of data collection techniques, all of which fall within the naturalistic paradigm of research. Indeed, it is exactly their lack of 'scientific' rigour which has meant that these tools - interviews, questionnaires, case studies and diaries - have been somewhat neglected in the past. Now, however, with the movement in the ELT profession towards valuing qualitative research, these tools are enjoying renewed status. One only needs to look at respected journals such as the ELT Journal to see that a vast quantity of action research is carried out using tools such as the ones we have explored in this unit, and that the results are seen as interesting and relevant enough to disseminate to a wider audience through publication.For yourselves as practising teachers, we hope that you will find uses for the data collection tools of this subject within your own teaching context, in order to explore and clarify your own practice.
6.8 Suggestions for further reading
Appel, J. (1995): Diary of a Language Teacher. Oxford: Heinemann.
Merriam, S. B. (1988): Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Peck, S. (1996): "Language learning diaries as mirrors of students' cultural sensitivity". In K. Bailey and D.Nunan (eds.) Voices from the Language Classroom, pp. 236-247.
Powney, J. & Watts, M. (1987): Interviewing in Educational Research. London: Routledge and Keegan Paul.
Yin, R. (1984): Case Study Research. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.
THEMATIC UNIT: RITUALS AND BELIEVES
A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value. It may be prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. The term usually excludes actions which are arbitrarily chosen by the performers.
A ritual may be performed on specific occasions, or at the discretion of individuals or communities. It may be performed by a single individual, by a group, or by the entire community; in arbitrary places, or in places especially reserved for it; either in public, in private, or before specific people. A ritual may be restricted to a certain subset of the community, and may enable or underscore the passage between religious or social states.
The purposes of rituals are varied; with religious obligations or ideals, satisfaction of spiritual or emotional needs of the practitioners, strengthening of social bonds, social and moral education, demonstration of respect or submission, stating one's affiliation, obtaining social acceptance or approval for some event—or, sometimes, just for the pleasure of the ritual itself.
Source: Wikipedia
Based on these definitions the students performed different presentation in class.
VALERIA MACHINES
Ritual: GOOD LUCK
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SEBASTIAN DIAZ
Good luck rituals around the world.
It’s always a good time for a personal makeover, whether it’s letting go of old baggage or embracing new possibilities. Creating a prosperous life requires a clean slate and a new year seems just the time to do it. Unfortunately, “prosperous” isn’t a word that pops into mind when thinking about the current state of global economic affairs. This may be one reason why now, more than ever, people are looking for omens, rituals, and practices that might increase their good fortune in a time of dour news reports. Luckily, good luck traditions and rituals have been bestowing their riches and good health (at least in theory) for centuries and their application is as timely as ever.
Many good luck rituals occur on New Year’s Day, but who is to say that put into practice on any given day, they wouldn’t work? Borrow from these practices, make them your own, and make this year your luckiest year.
United States
The Southern tradition of eating black eyes peas on New Year’s Day is something that can continue throughout the year. “Each pea has an eye in it and there’s a sense of looking into the future and bringing good luck to people who eat them,” said William Ferris, a professor at the University of North Carolina and co-editor of the Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. The good-luck ritual includes shelling the peas and throwing the husks in the road, he continued. Southerners also believe eating collard greens early in the New Year will bring money and prosperity. Time to get those greens and beans on the stove.
The Southern tradition of eating black eyes peas on New Year’s Day is something that can continue throughout the year. “Each pea has an eye in it and there’s a sense of looking into the future and bringing good luck to people who eat them,” said William Ferris, a professor at the University of North Carolina and co-editor of the Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. The good-luck ritual includes shelling the peas and throwing the husks in the road, he continued. Southerners also believe eating collard greens early in the New Year will bring money and prosperity. Time to get those greens and beans on the stove.
China
The Chinese New Year uses the color red to symbolize good luck and happiness. In China, front doors are traditionally painted red to bring in the good omens. Although you might not want a new door color, wearing red can convey self-esteem and confidence. And according to a 2008 study, wearing red may also increase a woman’s luck at catching at catching a mate—men reported that women in reddish clothing were sexier than those in blue and greens.
The Chinese New Year uses the color red to symbolize good luck and happiness. In China, front doors are traditionally painted red to bring in the good omens. Although you might not want a new door color, wearing red can convey self-esteem and confidence. And according to a 2008 study, wearing red may also increase a woman’s luck at catching at catching a mate—men reported that women in reddish clothing were sexier than those in blue and greens.
The Chinese also believe that dragons, fish, elephants, and cranes represent good luck and prosperity. Many people have statues or pictures of these animals in strategic parts of their house.
Spain
The Spanish ritual on New Year’s Eve is to eat twelve grapes at midnight; one eaten at each tolling of the midnight bells. The tradition is meant to secure twelve happy months in the coming year. This ritual could be used year round on birthdays to issue in twelve happy months of your “new” year.
The Spanish ritual on New Year’s Eve is to eat twelve grapes at midnight; one eaten at each tolling of the midnight bells. The tradition is meant to secure twelve happy months in the coming year. This ritual could be used year round on birthdays to issue in twelve happy months of your “new” year.
Greece
The Greeks bake a special cake on New Year’s Day to secure luck for the coming year. Vassilopitta, or St Basil’s cake, is baked with a silver or gold coin inside. Whoever finds the coin in her piece of cake will be especially lucky during the coming year. A twist on this traditional theme is to have a dinner party, make a Vassilopitta, and declare the finder of the coin the luckiest person for the next year.
The Greeks bake a special cake on New Year’s Day to secure luck for the coming year. Vassilopitta, or St Basil’s cake, is baked with a silver or gold coin inside. Whoever finds the coin in her piece of cake will be especially lucky during the coming year. A twist on this traditional theme is to have a dinner party, make a Vassilopitta, and declare the finder of the coin the luckiest person for the next year.
Holland
During the New Year, the Dutch have Christmas tree bonfires on the streets and launch fireworks. The fires are meant to purge the old and welcome the new. The Dutch also believe that circles are a symbol of success. For that reason, they believe that eating donuts on New Year’s Day will bring good fortune. An idea to incorporate this good luck symbol into your life is to wear circular jewelry, hoop earrings, bracelets, and rings.
During the New Year, the Dutch have Christmas tree bonfires on the streets and launch fireworks. The fires are meant to purge the old and welcome the new. The Dutch also believe that circles are a symbol of success. For that reason, they believe that eating donuts on New Year’s Day will bring good fortune. An idea to incorporate this good luck symbol into your life is to wear circular jewelry, hoop earrings, bracelets, and rings.
Germany
Germany has a very odd tradition to predict the course of action of the coming year. It’s called “Silvester” and it involves melting lead on the stovetop. After it becomes molten, they pour it out on a cookie sheet and whatever shape it takes determines the course of the following year. For example, a round shape means good luck will roll your way. A flower shape signifies new friendships. This may seem ridiculous, but Germans have been relying on it for years. For practical (and safety) purposes, this might be better in theory than in practice. Try splattering some paint on a canvas and determine what shape it makes. Make this your good luck omen, or just use it as a way to express creativity and blow off some steam.
Germany has a very odd tradition to predict the course of action of the coming year. It’s called “Silvester” and it involves melting lead on the stovetop. After it becomes molten, they pour it out on a cookie sheet and whatever shape it takes determines the course of the following year. For example, a round shape means good luck will roll your way. A flower shape signifies new friendships. This may seem ridiculous, but Germans have been relying on it for years. For practical (and safety) purposes, this might be better in theory than in practice. Try splattering some paint on a canvas and determine what shape it makes. Make this your good luck omen, or just use it as a way to express creativity and blow off some steam.
Japan
The Japanese serve soba noodles on New Year’s Eve or Day. They believe that the long noodles signify a long and prosperous life and that eating a long noodle in one bite will secure a long, fruitful life. The Japanese also decorate their homes in tribute to lucky gods. One tradition, kadomatsu, consists of a pine branch symbolizing longevity, a bamboo stalk symbolizing prosperity, and a plum blossom showing nobility. Idea: Use this tradition as a reason to do a little redecorating in your place. A fresh makeover of your interior can help you become more organized. Perhaps you just might find that extra stash of cash.
The Japanese serve soba noodles on New Year’s Eve or Day. They believe that the long noodles signify a long and prosperous life and that eating a long noodle in one bite will secure a long, fruitful life. The Japanese also decorate their homes in tribute to lucky gods. One tradition, kadomatsu, consists of a pine branch symbolizing longevity, a bamboo stalk symbolizing prosperity, and a plum blossom showing nobility. Idea: Use this tradition as a reason to do a little redecorating in your place. A fresh makeover of your interior can help you become more organized. Perhaps you just might find that extra stash of cash.
Contrary to popular belief, you can make your own luck. And, thanks to a little help from these unique traditions, the coming year might be fruitful for all of us. Try them out and customize them. Use them as inspiration for making new traditions of your own. And, if all else fails, just eat a fortune cookie and see what happens.
First published February 2009
SEBASTIAN DIAZ
Rituals of metal
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JUANITA QUEVEDO
JUANITA QUEVEDO
Haka
Have you ever wondered what that thing the All Blacks
performs before every game is? Is called Haka, and it is a traditional native
dance of the Maori the native people of New Zealand
According to Maori beliefs, the child born to
Tama-nui-to-ra (The Sun God) and his wife Hine- raumati (the Summer Maid) was
Tane-rore. The invention of the Haka is credited to him. Tane-rore is the
shaking of the air as seen on the hot days of summer, and represented by the
special movements of the hands in the dance.
For instance, Alan Armstrong provided a clear
definition of this art: “The Haka is a
composition played by many instruments: Hands, feet, legs, body, voice, tongue,
and eyes all playing their part in the blending together to convey in their
fullness the challenge, welcome, exultation, defiance, or contempt of the
words”.
“It is
discipline, yet emotional. More than any other aspect of Maori culture, this
dance is an expression of the passion, vigour and identity of the race. It is
at it´s best, truly, a message of the soul expressed by words and posture….”
What is more, this traditional dance represents the
roots of the Maori people, something that showed the honour and strength of
this culture.
